Molecules

Vitamin B3 — a broadly-tolerated all-rounder that strengthens the skin barrier, evens tone and helps regulate oil.

A humectant that holds water in the upper skin — pure hydration, tolerated by essentially everyone, at any concentration.

An antioxidant that brightens dullness and helps defend against daytime free-radical damage — a morning serum ingredient.

A beta-hydroxy acid that dissolves oil and dead skin inside the pore, so it's the go-to for blackheads, congestion and oily-skin breakouts.

The skin's own barrier lipids — they patch a compromised moisture barrier, which is why they pair so well with actives that resurface.

A vitamin-A derivative that speeds cell turnover — the best-evidenced ingredient for fine lines and texture over months of nightly use.

The smallest alpha-hydroxy acid — it resurfaces the top layer for glow and even tone, working on the surface where BHA works in the pore.

A gentle, stable brightener that fades dark spots by slowing melanin production — a milder route to even tone than acids.

A fungal-derived brightener that fades dark spots and melasma by blocking tyrosinase — effective, but strong enough that the EU now caps how much a product may contain.

Constricts surface blood vessels, so it temporarily reduces under-eye puffiness. Honest limit: the effect is temporary, and the evidence on dark circles is modest — it won't erase pigment-based circles.

Skin's own oil, plant-made — softens and seals, never greasy.

An alpha-hydroxy acid with a larger molecule than glycolic — it exfoliates the surface more gently and doubles as a humectant, so it suits AHA beginners and drier skin.

A newer brightener with good evidence on melasma and post-acne marks — it calms the signalling that tells pigment cells to overproduce, and is gentler than acids.